God, Who studded the sky with jewels and carpeted
the earth with colors, has written His revelation in language which
reflects the beauties of His visible creation. The diction of the East
and of the Scriptures is full of fine figures, over which we walk with
ruthless tread, seldom stopping to admire the blooms beneath our feet.
It is the voice of feeling as well as fact. Nor is its beauty merely
ornamental. Unless our eyes are opened to their presence and we feel
their force, we may fail to enter beneath the surface of bare facts,
into the heart of God's truth, and be led astray by mere externals.
NOT TRUE AS TO FACT
It is startling to realize that much of God’s
Word is not literally true. Some of its most precious and important
statements simply cannot be taken as they stand. “God is light” is
not an actual fact. Literally stated, He is, in the spiritual sphere,
in some ways like light in the physical realm. But how much more
forceful and beautiful to condense all this into a short and striking
sentence, even if it is not strictly correct! This should open our
eyes to realize that not everything in the Scriptures must be taken
literally. When the Lord told His disciples that Lazarus had found
repose and that He was about to wake him out of sleep, they took His
word literally, which was misleading. So He told them frankly that
Lazarus had died. By this figure, which was not true in fact, He had
foreshadowed the great truth that Lazarus’ death was like taking a
nap, for He would rouse him from the tomb. We should be on our guard
when Scripture states that which cannot be true. Such words are not
false, but figurative. Because the Scriptures unfold to us the
metaphysical and the spiritual, for which we have no organs of
perception, these are usually spoken of in terms of the physical and
the material. Hence we should expect to find many figures in God’s
revelation. Words used literally of things in the lower sphere,
accessible to our soulish senses, are needed in a superior sense for
that which belongs to a higher sphere. Such conceptions as light and
darkness, life and death, high and low, are freely used as figures. In
fact, many have been so often used in this fashion that we mistakenly
speak of the figurative usage as a special “meaning,” when it is
really a faded figure.
IMPORTANCE IN INTERPRETATION
Of the vast importance of figures of speech in
interpretation, there can be no question. In the Reformation a single
metaphor, “this is My body,” led to conflicts and divisions which
would never have arisen if there had been even an elementary knowledge
of figurative language. On some subjects, the Scriptures seem to
contradict themselves, simply because figures are taken for facts.
When the figure is recognized, the conflict vanishes. An investigation
will show that differences of interpretation occur especially often
with words which are frequently used figuratively. As a rule this has
affected their literal significance and clouded the passages in which
they appear. In such cases, if the literal is sharply distinguished,
the discrepancies will disappear.
NOT EVIDENCE FOR THE MEANING OF WORDS
In seeking to fix the exact significance of a word,
only its literal usage should be consulted. Here alone the actual
meaning appears. The figurative is a departure from it. Therefore, in
the Keyword Concordance, many of the figurative expressions have been
indicated. They should not be included in the evidence when fixing a
word’s precise signification. This does not apply equally to all
figures. The context within a parable shows the meaning of a word, for
the parts of a parable may be literal with respect to one another.
Thus we may learn much of darnel in the parable of the sowing, even
though the darnel itself is a figure of hypocritical disciples.
The literal meaning of a word is one and constant:
the figurative usage is diverse and variable. The fact that
lexicographers as a rule fail to distinguish the meaning of a word
from the usage has made their definitions indefinite, and has led to
much confusion. A word has been given many “meanings” by
incorporating its figurative usages. As these may vary much, the true
significance of the word becomes obscure. It is important that we give
each word a constant literal meaning, but it is equally necessary that
we do not apply its figurative usage in every passage.
FIGURES IN TRANSLATION
As the dangers of a close rendering arise largely
from figures of speech, or rather from the lack of a proper observance
of them, it was deemed wise to determine, list and analyze the
principal figures, especially those which affect translation, and thus
safeguard the concordant method in this direction. Hence this
Concordance, listing most of the occurences of each figure, was
prepared.
THE ADVANTAGE OF A CONCORDANCE
Just as, in seeking the meaning of a word in the
Scriptures, we should examine all of its literal occurrences, so the
best method of fixing the force of any figure is to investigate all of
its examples in Holy Writ. FIGURES
OF SPEECH USED IN THE BIBLE by E. W. Bullinger, D.D., (Grand
Rapids, MI 49506: Baker Book House) has proved to be a valuable tool
in preparing the following Concordance of Figures. The principal
advantage of the following Concordance is that it brings most of the
figures of the same kind together, so that each may be interpreted
consistently with all the rest.
The concordance of words used literally will show
that each one has but one central significance, but a Concordance of
Figures will show that each one may also be used for different, and
even opposite, ideas.
COMPOUND OR COMPLEX FIGURES
Frequently a single expression is figurative in two
or more directions. Thus, in the sentence, “ Heaven is God’s
throne,” the word “ throne” is a Metaphor, for heaven
is not only said to be like, but to be a throne. But
a throne, in this case, is not merely the piece of furniture, but
stands for the idea of rule. So it is also an Association (Metonyrny).
As it ascribes what is human to the Deity, it is also a Condescension
(Anthropopatheia). Only the principal figure may be indicated in such
cases.
Many figures may be classified under two or more
headings, when they possess characteristics of each. Thus
Parallelisms may be, in some degree, Repetitions, yet
the figure lies rather in the arrangement of the words and
sentences. Hard and fast lines cannot always be drawn.
FADED FIGURES
Many figures have been used so much that it seems
far-fetched to mark them as such. Thus, rise, as applied to
the dead, is a clear figure, yet it is used commonly in this sense,
hence it is not marked. The boundary between faded and unfaded figures
is very vague, so we have sought to be practical and helpful, even
though it was not always possible to be consistent.
LIMITATIONS OF FIGURES
Figures, especially those of likeness, must be
strictly limited to the point or points, of contact, for it is
axiomatic that there is unlikeness in all other particulars.
They must never be used as if they were true in fact. Therefore it is
unwise to use figures of speech as a basis of reasoning, for the
points of contact are limited to those stated or apparent, and they
may not be extended to other relations. Thus when Paul speaks of
betrothing the Garinthians to Christ, he refers only to their
singleness and purity. The figure does not include
any other aspect of betrothal or refer in any way to
marriage. It is confusing to connect it with such figures.
NOMENCLATURE
A name should be an index of that which it
represents. The names usually given to figures of speech have been so
technical and foreign that they have made the subject unnecessarily
difficult and distasteful. Hence we will give a new English name to
such as need one. Instead of calling the commonest of figures a Hypocatastasis
we will define it by the name Implication, and, as it occurs
so frequently, simply mark it with F
for Figure. The common, well-known names, as Simile, Metaphor,
Parable, etc., will be retained.
[Editor's Note: Reference here, and elsewhere,
to the use of superscript characters concerns their use in the Keyword
Concordance, from which this section has been taken.]
CLASSIFICATION
Figures may Be classified in many different ways,
but they are so lacking in definite boundaries, and so often overlay
each other, that no classification is altogether ideal. Hence we have
chosen the course which seems most practical and helpful, and have
divide them into small groups according to their salient
characteristics, and have put them in the order of their importance.
Most figures are figures of likeness, hence these lead the
rest, followed by those of association. The groups are as
follows: Likeness, Association, Arrangements Omission, Addition,
Repetition, Grammatical Substitution, Variance, Rhetoric.
FIGURES OF LIKENESS
Likeness, or comparison, is the most frequent form
in which figures are found. Though there are only a few varieties
which are based on similarity, most figures, by far, belong to this
class. In fact, one of these, Implication, is so frequently
found, that we will simply call it a “ figure.”
The point to press in figures of likeness is that
they depend upon unlikeness. Two objects must be unlike
in the main, and similar in one or more particulars, in order to be a
figure. Under no circumstances must the likeness be allowed to go
beyond these particulars, or the figure is violated. So also, in
parables the salient points alone are to be pressed, for much detail
may be included which merely makes the picture complete.
All figures of likeness may be expanded into a
simile, by adding the formula “ is like.” This is one of the
simplest tests to determine whether it is included in this class. The
simile actually states that one thing is like or similar to another in
some respect, hence no notation is needed to call attention to it, as
“ All flesh is like grass.” The metaphor is
bolder. It leaves the realm of fact, and says that one is
another, as “ All flesh is grass.” Still more striking is the implication,
which takes the likeness for granted, as “ the grass withers.” The
parable goes further and makes a whole statement, including
action, as “ Physician, cure yourself.” It will be seen that these
figures are, in one sense, figures of omission, for they are
abbreviated similes.
Especially in parables, there are many words which
seem to be quite literal in their context, but become figurative
because the context is a comparison. They are marked with a P
for Parable and a V
for Vision in the KEYWORD CONCORDANCE.
The figures of likeness consist of Simile,
Metaphor, Implication, Parable. Allegory, Vision, Sign, Type, Shadow,
Example, Image, Impersonation (or Personification), and Condescension.
SIMILE
It is only when two dissimilar objects are
said to be alike in some particular that the simile becomes a figure
of speech. Even then, it is true in fact, hence it is only partly over
the border line of figures. But, as it is the essence of all figures
of likeness, into which they all may be expanded, we will include it
in our classification.
METAPHOR
The metaphor is an abbreviated simile. It omits the
statement of likeness, hence it is not true as to fact, but forceful
as to feeling. Instead of saying that one thing is like
another, it boldly insists that it is that other. The
substantive verb is usually present, as, “ This is My body.”
Literal facts may be stated with or without the verb, but this figure
calls for its presence. It is indicated by the tiny superior M
before the verse reference.
IMPLICATION (FIGURE)
By far the most frequent of figures is the Implication
(Hypocatastasis), which, on this account, we designate simply by the
letter F for
Figure. Not only does it omit the statement of likeness (which the
Simile has) but it also does without the verb is (which the
Metaphor has), simply taking the likeness for granted. The similarity
is implied, hence the name Implication.
PARABLE
A likeness developed into action is called a Parable.
In Greek this is literally that which is cast beside, a
parallel. In it, one set of circumstances in the physical sphere is
likened to a spiritual counterpart, The resemblance extends to action,
and must include a verb used figuratively. To put it popularly, a
parable is a moving picture, while a metaphor or implication
is a still one. Every figurative action seems to have the making of a
parable. Absolute boundaries cannot be drawn, nor are they vital.
There should be a figurative object, combined with a figurative
action.
The shortest named parable in the Scriptures is:
“ Physician, cure yourself!” (Luke 4:23). Here both the noun and
the verb are figurative. Our Lord is not merely compared to a
physician, but to one who attends his own case. The action of the
physician is added to the likeness. According to this inspired
example, no lengthy story is needed to constitute a scriptural
parable. Hence there are many more of these than is usually supposed.
The verb and noun which make the parable must be literal in regard to
each other. A physician cures. But a case such as “ put on . . . the
old humanity” (Eph. 4:22) is not a parable, though both noun and
verb are figurative, for we strip off clothing, not humanity. Perhaps
the most extensive parable in the Scriptures is the tabernacle and its
ritual (Heb. 9:9).
The same figure must be apparent in both the noun
and the verb. “ Physician, deal with your own misfortune!” would
not be a parable, as the figure is lacking in the verb. Neither would
“ you should cure yourself” do, for the corresponding figure in
the noun is lacking.
Many parables are compound, that is, consisting of
more than one picture, sometimes in a parallel, as make ready a
road and straighten a highway (Matt. 3:3). Sometimes it
is progressive, as, scour a threshing floor, gather into
a barn, burn the chaff (Matt. 3:12), or complex, with
more than one verb, as, salt made insipid, cast out, trampled
(Matt. 5:13).
As the function of a parable is to make a physical
parallel for metaphysical truth, it need not be based on actual facts.
Culling grapes from thorns (Matt. 7:16) cannot be a real occurrence.
It is not likely that someone paid the same wages for one hour’s
work as for a whole day (Matt. 20:1-16). The physical must be
accommodated to the truth to be paralleled, for this, and not the
story told, is where the point lies.
ALLEGORY
The only Allegory mentioned in the
Scriptures makes an actual, historical occurrence represent truth in
another realm. Two women stand for two covenants (Gal. 4:22-28). This
seems to be the real distinguishing feature of the allegory: Actual
persons in their everyday lives set forth truth in the spiritual
sphere.
VISION
In a Vision the eyes behold what is
outside the range of human sight or has no real existence at the time.
While not an actual figure of speech, it often, like the parable, is
often filled with implications which used so constantly that they
become symbols. Thus, in the Revelation, the throne stands for rule
and the temple for religion, the Lambkin for the sacrifice of Christ
and the wild beast for the opposing powers.
The Principal Visions
The transformation, Matt. 17:1-5, Mark 9:2-7, Luke
9:29-35; the flaming thorn bush, Acts 7:30-34; Ananias and Saul, Acts
9:10-16; messenger of God to Cornelius, Acts 10:3-6; Peter, sheet let
down from heaven, Acts 10:11-16, 11:5-10; man of Macedonia to Paul,
Acts 16:9; Paul at Corinth, Acts 18:9, 10; Son of Mankind, amidst
lampstands, Rev. 1:10-20; throne, scroll, Lambkin, Rev. 4:1-5:14;
seals opened, Rev. 6:1-17; the 144,000, 7:1-8; vast throng, Rev.
7:9-17; seven trumpets, Rev. 8:1-9:21; seven thunders, Rev. 10:1-7;
the tiny scroll, Rev. 10:8-11; the two witnesses, Rev. 11:1-13;
seventh trumpet, Rev. 11:15-18;the temple open, Rew. 11:19-13:18; the
144,000, Rev. 14:1-13; the harvest, Rev. 14:14-16; the vintage, Rev.
14:17-20; the seven calamities, Rev. 15:1-16:21; the unfaithful woman
and the scarlet wild beast. Rev. 17:1-18; Babylon, Rev. 18:1-19:5;
marriage of the Lambkin, Rev. 19:6-10: Gods great dinner, Rev.
19:11-21; the thousand years, Rev. 20:1-10; the great White Throne,
Rev. 20:11-15; the new Jerusalem, Rev. 21:1-23; the river of life,
Rev. 22:1-3.
SIGN
A Sign is an actual occurrence which
carries with it a significance not apparent on the surface. It may be
a simple act, as the kiss of Judas (Matt. 26:48), which signified Who
Christ was, or it may include several objects and considerable
circumstance, as the woman and the male son (Rev. 12:5). A salutation
by Paul’s own hand was a sign of the genuineness of an epistle from
him. Circumcision was the sign of God’s covenant Our Lord did many
clear signs in order to show that He is the promised Messiah. Almost
every miracle of healing set forth His restoration of Israel in the
Kingdom to come. Almost all of His acts are significant of the future.
Signs in the Scriptures
Jonah the prophet, Matt. 12:39, 16:4, Luke 11:29,
30; the Son of Mankind, Matt. 24:30, Luke 11:30; Judas’ kiss, Matt.
26:48; casting out demons, talking new languages, picking up serpents,
drinking deadly drink . . . no harm, placing hands on ailing . . .
well, Mark 16:17, 18; Babe in manger, Luke 2:12; in the sun, moon,
constellations, on earth, pressure of nations in perplexity,
resounding of the sea and shaking, chilling of men from fear, Luke
21:25, 26; wedding at Cana, John 2:1-11; raze and raise temple, John
2:19; healing the courtier’s son, John 4:46-54; feeding the five
thousand, John 6:10-14; raising Lazarus, John 11:23-44; healing the
lame man, Acts 3:2-10; unclean spirits come out, paralytics and lame
are cured, Acts 8:7; healing paralyzed Eneas, Acts 9:33-34; Dorcas
brought back to life, Acts 9:36-41; lame man of Lystra cured, Acts
14:8-10; circumcision, Rom. 4:11; languages for a sign, I Cor. 14:22;
Paul’s hand (writing), 2 Thes. 3:17; woman, Rev. 12:l; dragon, Rev.
12:3-6; messengers with calamities, Rev. 15:1.
TYPE
A Type is literally the impression left
when using a die, as the print of the nails (John 20:25), the
pattern which is to be followed. It is, therefore, a likeness
which extends to details. The only one mentioned in the Scriptures is
that of Adam who corresponds with Christ (Rom. 5:12-21). The
tabernacle was made to correspond with the type or model
shown Moses in the mount (Heb. 8:5).
An antitype, in Greek, is not the reality
which is typified, but is, like the type, a representation
of the true, as the holy places made by hands (Heb. 9:24) and baptism
(1 Pet. 3:21).
SHADOW
Shadow is the apt scriptural term for dark
representations of unseen or future realities. The offerings under the
law were a shadow of the divine service of the celestials. The law had
a shadow of the impending good (Heb. 10:1). The instructions regarding
food, drink, festivals, new moons and sabbaths foreshadow what is
still impending (Col. 2:16-17).
EXAMPLE
The Example (Exemplum) is another aspect
of the Shadow, for under the law of Moses, the offerings were
both an example and a shadow of the divine service of the celestials
(Heb. 8:5). The tabernacle and its vessels are examples of what is in
the heavens (Heb. 9:23).
IMAGE
An Image is a closer likeness than a
shadow, being a visible delineation of that which is invisible or
absent, Christ is the Image of God (Col. 1:15). Caesar’s image
was on the currency (Matt. 22:20). The image of the wild
beast will be his effigy.
IMPERSONATION ( or PERSONIFICATION)
Things are spoken of as persons in this figure, As
the letter P
is needed to indicate a Parable, we have changed Personification to
Impersonation and use the letter I
to mark it.
CONDESCENSION
When God is spoken of as if He were human, or were
a part of His creation, this is done in His condescension, so that He
may reveal Himself in terms within the range of human perception.
THE DIMINUTIVE
That which is small in size awakens in us a variety
of feelings, principally affection or contempt. This may arise partly
from association also. Thus, in some languages, the diminutive ending
is freely used to express regard. In the Scriptures, we have one
special instance in which it is used in a derogatory sense. The “
little women, heaped with sins,” would hardly be confined to those
small of stature. Yet here there is a strong likelihood that it was a
term of affection at first, and only took on a derogatory sense by
association.
FIGURES OF
ASSOCIATION
Association includes that class of figures in which
something associated with a thing is put for it. Our Lord practically
defined it when He said. “ He who swears by heaven is swearing by
the throne of God and by Him Who is sitting upon it” (Matt. 23:22).
Here we have God’s throne put for His rule and heaven put for the
throne, not because there is any likeness between these, but because
they are associated with one another. The difference between
a literal statement and this figure is plainly seen in the statement,
“ I came not to be casting peace but a sword”
(Matt. 10:34). Literally, it would read strife or war
in place of sword. The sword is so commonly used (by association) for
war, that it may be called its symbol, were it not that it is used in
a still broader sense for all enforcements of government (Rom. 13:4).
ASSOCIATION
Association, usually called Metonymy, may
also be classed as a figure of omission, for it may always be made
literal by the insertion of an explanatory phrase. Thus, the phrase
“ the kingdom of the heavens” may be expanded into “ the kingdom
(of the God of) the heavens” (Dan. 2:44). By usage it includes the
thought of God ruling the earth through others.
A common form of Association is worthy of special
mention, in which a noun is followed by another in the genitive case,
as, “ purpose of the eons,” which may be expanded as “ purpose
(carried out during) the eons,” or “ the word of life,”
expanded, “ the word (which gives) life.” The relation is usually
general, and may be expanded in a variety of ways. It is not always
clear whether there is a figure present when two nouns are thus
related, so the following are only representative, striking examples.
Often such formations appear where we would
generally use an adjective in English, such as “ Son of His love”
(Col. 1:13) instead of “ His beloved Son” or “ administration of
the secret” (Eph. 3:9) instead of “ secret administration.”
There are exceptions, though. “ Slaves of Sin” (Rom. 6:17), for
example, does not mean “ sinful slaves” for the very reason that
in Romans six Sin is personified as a ruler. The context will have to
decide what is the correct procedure. In the Version the translation
often follows the word order of the Greek. Thus in such cases the
decision whether or not the genetive noun has an adjectival sense must
be left to the discernment of the reader.
Association, Noun with genitive Noun
assurance, riches of
Col. 2:2;
condemnation, dispensation of, 2 Cor. 3:9;
consolation, God of, 2 Cor. 1:3;
darkness, world mights of, Eph. 6:12,
gloom of, 2 Pet. 2:17;
death, body of, Rom. 7:24;
deception, spirit of, 1 John 4:6:
destruction, sects of, 2 Pet. 2:1:
eon, eon of, Heb. 1:8:
eons, purpose of, Eph. 3:11:
expectation, God of, Rom. 15:13
exultation, oil of, Heb. l:9
faith, hearing of, Gal. 3:5,
work of, 2 Thes. 1:11 ;
flesh, disposition of, Rom. 8:6
fathers of, Heb. 12:9,
lusts, will of, Eph.
2:3,
mind of, Col. 2:18,
just statutes, Heb.
9:10:
freedom, law of, Jas. 1:25, 2:12;
fury, wine of, Rev. 18:3:
gloom, caverns of, 2 Pet. 2:4;
glory, advent of, Titus 2:13,
body of, Phil. 3:21,
Christ of, Jas. 2:1,
evangel of, 2 Cor. 4:4,
expectation of, Col.
1:27,
Father of, Eph. 1:17,
God of, Acts 7:2,
laud of, Eph. l:12,
Lord of, 1Cor. 2:8,
might of, Col. 1:11,
riches of, Eph. 3:16:
God, man of, 2 Tim. 3:17;
good, evangel of, Rom. 10:15:
goodness, delight of, 2 Thes. 1:11:
humiliation, body of, Phil. 3:21:
injustice, wages of, 2 Pet. 2:15;
irreverence, desires of, Jude 18
law, works of, Gal. 3:5, 3:10;
lawlessness, man of, 2 Thee. 2:3;
life, log of, Rev. 2:7, 22:2, 14, 19,
scroll of, Phil. 4:3,
water of, Rev. 7:17,
word of, Phil. 2:16, 1
John 1:1,
wreath of, Jas. 1:12
love, God of, 2 Cor. 13:11,
kiss of, 1 Pet. 5:14,
In an Appellation some quality, office or
attribute is used instead of a proper name, as when God is spoken of
as “ the Majesty”, Heb. 1:3). Sometimes this is reversed, and a
proper name is used to indicate that with which it is associated, as
when John the Baptist is called Elijah, because he came in his spirit
and power (Matt. 17:12, Luke 1:17). It is used frequently when calling
our Lord, Teacher, Rabbi, Son of Mankind, Prophet, Christ, Lord,
etc, These are too numerous to list. See also Acts 22:14, 25:26.
COMPOUND ASSOCIATION
Association may be so remote that it is
best resolved by making two steps (Metalepsis). Thus, “ the word of
the cross” (1 Cor. 1:18, uses the term cross for the shameful death
endured, and this, in turn, for the effects which follow it (Gal.
6:14, Col. 1:20). So also the blood of Christ, since it
contained the soul (Lev. 17:11), figures His suffering, and beyond
this its effects as figured in the tabernacle and temple ritual. See
under blood in the Concordance.
NEAR ASSOCIATION
Near Association (Synechdoche) is a
special form of Association in which it is partly literal. Thus, when
we read that Jerusalem went out to hear John the Baptist (Matt. 3:5),
we know that the place itself did not go, but the inhabitants, a part
of it, are intended. This figure is frequently used of the flesh to
indicate the physical frame of man, including the bones and the blood,
though, in other places these are especially distinguished from it.
EUPHEMISM
Euphemism (Euphemismos) is the
substitution of a pleasant expression for an offensive one. It is not
often used in the Scriptures except in the verb know when referring to
the relations of the sexes.
RETENTION
Retention is the use of an epithet in a
new relation which displaces the old, though it is no longer literally
true. It is often used of those our Lord healed, as when the dumb
talk. But it is especially striking in such phrases as, “ the
tablets of the heart” (2 Cor. 3:3) displacing the tablets of the
law, and “ a new covenant” (2 Cor. 3:6) displacing the old literal
covenant. The following are examples: blind, Matt. 11:5, 15:31;
covenant, Matt. 26:28, Mark 14:24, Luke 22:20, Rom. 11:27, 1 Cor.
11:25, 2 Cor. 3:6, Heb. 8:8, 10, 9:15, 10:16, 29, 13:20: dead,
Luke7:15, 1 Pet. 4:5, 6, Rev. 20:12; mute, Matt. 9:33, 11:5, 12:22,
Luke 7:22, 11:14; kingdom, 1 Cor. 15:24; lame, Matt. 11:5; leper,
Matt. 26:6, Mark 14:3; tablets, 2 Cor. 3:3; tribute collector, Matt.
10:3; water, John 2:9.
CIRCUMLOCUTION
Circumlocution (Periphrasis) uses a
descriptive phrase in place of a name in order to emphasize the
association. Occurrences are: born of women (human) Matt. 11:11, Luke
7:28; the product of the grapevine (wine) Matt. 26:29: the city of
David (Bethlehem) Luke 2:11; those sitting on the surface of the
entire earth (humanity) Luke 21:35; terrestrial tabernacle house
(body) 2 Cor. 5:1; those about to be enjoying the allotment of
salvation (the saved) Heb. 1:14; in this tabernacle (alive) 2 Pet.
1:13; my tabernacle is to be put off (die) 2 Pet. 1:14; He Who is
sitting on the throne (the Deity) Rev. 4:2, 10, 5:1, 7.
ENIGMA
Ancient mirrors did not reflect clearly or fully.
So also with God’s Word up to the latest revelations of Paul.
Previous unfoldings he speaks of as an enigma (1 Cor 13:12).
SYMBOL
The Symbol is a more or less permanent
figure of likeness or association. In order to understand symbols
there must be a close acquaintance with the figures of which they are
composed. In no case should they conflict with literal or later
revelation. They come too close to the realm of interpretation to be
dealt with here at length. We simply add some examples of figures
which seem to warrant this designation, as well as some symbelic
actions. The action is literal, but is associated with and implies a
spiritual attitude or activity. Thus, bowing the knee indicates
worship.
Beat the chest, Luke 18:13, 23:48; bind, Acts
21:11; bow the knee, Rom. 11:4, 14:11, Eph. 3:14, Phil. 2:10; gird up
the loins, 1 Pet. l:13; give the right hand, Gal. 2:9; impose hands, 1
Tim. 4:14, 5:22, Heb. 6:2; kiss, Rom. 16:16, 1 Cor. 16:20, 2 Cor.
13:12, 1 Pet. 5:14; lift up eyes, Luke 18:13; lift up hands, Luke
24:50, 1 Tim. 2:8; loose sandals, Acts 7:33, 13:25; loose the thong,
John 1:27; measure, Rev. 11:1; place foot on, Rev. 10:2; shake off
dust, Matt. 10:14, Acts 13:51; shake out garment, Acts 18:6; sit at
right, Col. 3:1, Heb. 1:3, 13, 8:1, 10:12; sit in sackcloth and ashes,
Luke 10:13; spew out of mouth, Rev. 3:16: stand at door and knock,
Rev. 3:20 stand at right, Acts 7:56; stand on, Rev. 10:5; taking hold
of hand, Heb. 8:9; trumpet, Rev. 8, 9, 11; twitch off dust, Luke 9:5;
wash feet. John 13:4-12; wash hands, Matt. 27:24; wipe off dust, Luke
19:11.
FIGURES OF
ARRANGEMENT
The arrangement of words, phrases and sentences
determines their emphasis and helps in interpretation.
PROMINENCE
In impassioned and even in ordinary speech the
important words are pushed to the fore, which produces emphasis, by
means of Prominence (Hyperbaton). In an inflected language
like Greek this can be done much more than in one like English, in
which the sense depends, in some measure, on the position of a word in
its sentence.
PARALLELISM
Parallelism or Correspondence consists of the
repetition of a sentence or sentences in similar or contrastive terms
and in the same order. An example is Luke 1:46-47:
My soul is magnifying the Lord,
And my spirit exults in God, my Saviour.
Soul corresponds to spirit, magnify
to exult, and Lord to God. It may be
extended so as to be written in several lines and then is sometimes
called an Alternation. But, as there is no real difference,
parallelism is a better term for all. It is not confined to poetry. It
is especially effective in Contrastive Parallelism, as Matt.
6:19, 20:
Do not hoard for yourselves treasures on earth,
where moth and corrosion are causing them
to disappear,
and where
thieves are tunnelling and stealing.
Yet hoard for yourselves treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor corrosion are
causing them to disapppear,
and where
thieves are not tunnelling or stealing.
REVERSAL
A Reversal (Introversion, Epanodos,
Antimetabole, Chiasmus) consists of the repetition of a sentence or
sentences, or a larger section, in similar or contrastive terms, but
in reverse order, The whole of Scripture is a reversal, beginning with
the creation and ending with a new creation, in which the destruction
by water (Gen. 1:2) corresponds to that by fire (2 Pet. 3:6-7, Rev.
20), its restoration (Gen. 1:2, 2:3) with the thousand years (Rev.
20:4), the serpent’s entry with the binding of Satan, etc. The life
of our Lord and the four accounts of it are constructed according to
this plan, for, after His rejection, He retraces His steps, as it
were. Most of Paul’s epistles are arranged in this way, as the
frameworks in the Complete Edition will show. In these larger
writings, of course, this applies only to the outlines. The details
may be parallelisms.
The recognition of this figure may be a help in
interpretation, as in Matthew 7:6:
You may not be giving that which is holy to
curs,
nor yet should you be casting your pearls
in front of hogs,
lest at some time they [the hogs] be
trampling them with their feet
and, turning, they [the curs] should be tearing you.
The structure of Romans is a good illustration of
this figure as applied to a whole epistle. It is a regular reversal.
except that the two main sections run parallel in their parts. Other
examples are given in the notes of the Complete Edition of the
Concordant Version.
MIXED ARRANGEMENTS
The larger frameworks usually contain both
parallelism and inversion. Thus the epistle to the Romans is a reveral,
yet the two great doctrinal divisions, dealing with justification and
conciliation are parallels. In such a case it is better to call the
whole a Reversal with (Doctrinal) Parallelism, rather than make a new
name.
Contrast (Antithesis) places one
expression over against another of opposite meaning, as in Rom. 5:18,
one offense is set over against one just award; in Acts16:37,
publicly, surreptitiously; Rom. 5:19, disobedience, obedience; 6:7, 8,
die, live; 8:5, 13, flesh, spirit; 2 Cor. 4:17, light affliction,
burden of glory; 18, temporary, eonian; 2 Cor. 6:8-10, glory and
dishonor, defamation and renown, deceivers and true, unknown and
recognized, dying and living, sorrowing yet rejoicing, poor yet
enriching, nothing and all; Phil. 3:7, gain, forfeit; 2Pet. 2:19,
freedom, slavery.
Contraries (Enantiosis) is a contrast in
which the difference is expressed by negations and affirmations, as
righteousness not of law but of faith. See Luke 7:44:46.
FIGURES OF OMISSION
As figures arise from fervor of speech, and this is
inclined to be terse, they are often accompanied by the omission
(Ellipsis) of words. The figure of Association may often be made
literal by adding an explanatory phrase, as “ the cup [containing
the wine] of blessing” (1 Cor. 10:16). Besides this there are
omissions which cannot be so explalned as, “ finishing [the
evangelization of] the cities Of Israel” (Matt. 10:23).
NOUN OMITTED
A very frequent and useful form of this figure is
the omission of the noun, leaving the adjective to stand for it. This
is usually explained as the use of the adjective instead of
the noun (Antimereia), but it seems simpler to consider it as an
omission, by which the adjective is emphasized. Examples as the good
[people], the wicked, the blind, the lame,
the rich, the poor, the twelve [apostles],
etc., show how often this figure is used.
PRONOUN OMITTED
In the Original the pronoun is occasionally
omitted, but, as a rule, it must be inserted in the translation. In
the CONCORDANT LITERAL NEW TESTAMENT such insertions
are given in light-faced type (Matt. 19:13, Mark 5:23, 6:5, 6:16, Luke
24:40, John 11:41, 15:6, Acts 2:29, 13:3, 29, 29, 19.:26, Rom. 8:23, 2
Cor..11:20, 20, Eph. 3:18, 2 Tim. 4:18, Heb. 4:15, 1 Pet. 2:23).
VERB OMITTED
Occasionally the verb is unimportant and is
omitted, so throwing the stress on that which is done, rather than on
the action, as: gave, Matt. 14:19; coming, Mark 7:4; came, Acts 10:15;
shall be vivified, 1Cor. 15:23; is nullified, remains, 2Cor. 3:11;
etc. The verb substantive (to be) is frequently omitted in the
Scriptures. It is selfevident as a rule, and its omission helps to
stress other parts of the sentence. As it is printed in light-face
type when not in the Greek, many examples may easily be found, as,
glory [be] to God, Luke 2:14; God [is] spirit, John 4:24, etc.
INCONGROUS OMISSION
When the omission of the verb seems to connect a
verb with an incongruous object, this is called Zeugma. As it is
seldom seen, a few examples will show that it is, in reality, a simple
omission, “ Opened was his mouth, and his tongue [was loosed]”
Luke 1:64. “ To do whatever Thy hand [does] and Thy counsel
designates beforehand to occur” Acts 4:28. “ Milk I give you to
drink, not solid food [to eat]” 1 Cor. 3:2.
AND
When the different details of a statement are not
to be separately considered, but to be hurried over in order to reach
the climax, the conjunction and is omitted (Asyndeton). It
should be compared with the opposite figure, Many-Ands (Polysyndeton)
in which each statement is introduced by and, When the and
occurs only before the last item enumerated, there is no figure. Some
examples are: Mark 7:21, 16:17, 18, Luke 1:17, 14:13,l4, 17:27, Rom.
2:19-23, 1 Cor. 3:12, 4:8, 12:28, 30.
UNFINISHED SENTENCE
A striking effect is produced by breaking off a
statement, and leaving it to be finished by the hearer (Aposiopesis).
Hebrews 3:11 is a powerful example: If they shall be entering into My
stopping—! Others are found in Mark8:12, Luke l3:9, 19:42, John
6:62, Acts 23:9.
OMISSION
Non-Sequence (Anacoluthon) is the breaking
off of the thread of thought and so omitting to finish one sentence
before beginning another, as Luke 21:6: These which you are
beholding—there will be coming days . . . See Galatians 2:6.
CONCLUSION OMITTED
When the conclusion is left to the imagination of
the hearer, this may be classed as an omission (Syllogismus). Instead
of saying that God’s care is very minute, our Lord said, “ of your
head even the hairs are all numbered,” Matt. 10:30. See also Matt.
25:20. Luke 7:44.
FIGURES OF ADDITION
That which is added for emphasis, and is not needed
for the sense, may be considered the figure of Addition
(Pleonasm, Redundance). Most of these are idioms carried over from the
Hebrew, and may be classified under other figures as well. Thus, “
hollowed be Thy name” (Matt. 6:9) is the figure of Association,
yet is not necessary for the sense, which could be expressed by be
hollowed. So also the word son is frequently used, as
“ the sons of mankind” (Mark 3:28), and hand, as “
through the hands of the apostles” (Acts 5:12), and face,
“from the face of the Lord” (Acts3:19), and midst, as
“severing the wicked from the midst of the just” (Matt.
13:49). Other examples will be found under these words in the
Concordance.
More rarely an unneeded word is added for emphasis
or elegance, as: tabernacle house, 2 Cor. 5:1; blesses us
with every spiritual blessing, Eph. 1:3.
NEGATIVE REPETITION
Special emphasis is given to a statement if it is
followed by its opposite with a negative, as: he avows and denies not,
John 1:20. See also the following: John 1:3, Acts 18:9, Rom. 4:20,
12:11, 12:14, 1 Cor. 1:10, Gal. 5:l, 1 John 1:8.
HISTORICAL SUPPLEMENT
Occasionally a hitherto unrecorded historical
supplement (Hysteresis) is added, as: Zacharias, son of Berechiah, whom
you murder between the temple and the altar (Mat 23:35), and: he
dwells in a city termed Nazareth, so that that may be fulfilled which
is declared through the prophets that: A Nazarene shall He be called
(Matt. 2:23). Neither of these are written in the prophets.
They are supplements, telling us what was done and spoken, but not
recorded. Further examples may be found in Acts 9:22, 26 (Saul’s
call), 2 Tim. 3:8, Heb. 9:19, 11:21, 12:21, James 5:17, Jude 9.
ENUMERATION ( or DISSECTION)
When the whole has been mentioned, and the parts
are added, we may call this Enumeration (Merismos). When the
whole is not mentioned, it does not really differ from an enumeration,
and is called Dissection (Synathrismos). Of the former class,
Galatians 5:22 is a good example, where the fruit of the spirit is
enumerated. See also Romans 2:6-8, Galatians 5:19-21, and the
occurrences of the word whether in the Concordance.
In the latter class we have the list of things which make up the
apostasy (1 Tim. 4:1-3). See also Romans 1:29-31, 2 Timothy 3:1-7, 1
Peter 4:3.
SUMMARIZING
An Enumeration which is condensed is
sometimes called Summarizing (Epitrochasmos). See Hebrews
11:39.
SUMMARY
A Summary (Symperasma) gives a brief
epitome of the foregoing. See Matthew 1:17, John 20:30, Hebrews 11:39.
ADDITIONS IN A SENTENCE
PARENTHESIS
A Parenthesis (Interpositio) is an
independent statement in the midst of another, without grammatical
connection. These are usually enclosed in curved marks in the text of
the Concordant Literal New Testament. A few examples follow: Matt.
24:15, Mark 7:2, 3, 4, 11, 13:14, Heb. 2:9, 2 Pet. 1:19.
RUNNING REMARK
A Parenthesis more or less independent may
be called a Running Remark (Epitrechon). It is usually set
off by dashes or parentheses.
Thus, in John 2:9, the remark is injected: (yet the
servants who have drawn the water were aware). See also Matt. 9:6,
John 4:8, 9, Acts 1:15, Rom. 3:5, 8, 8, 8:20, 9:3, 10:6, 7, Eph. 2:5,
5, 11, Col. 2:22, Heb. 12:20, 21.
INSERTION
A longer parenthesis is given the special name of Insertion
(Parabole). Thus in Mark 7:3, 4 a long explanation is inserted. In 2
Cor. 12:2, 3 two sentences are inserted. Elsewhere whole paragraphs
are evidently insertions, as 1 Corinthians 15:20-28, which reads on
only if these verses are omitted. See also 2 Cor. 3:5, Eph. 3:2-13.
PARENTHETIC APOLOGY
A Parenthetic Apology (Hypotimesis) is
used to excuse a seeming impropriety, as 2 Cor. 11:21: (in imprudence
am I saying it), or Rom. 3:5: (As a man am I saying it).
POSTSCRIPT
The Postscript (Epicrisis) as a detached
remark concerning what has been said. It occurs most frequently in
John’s account, as John 3:24: for not as yet was John cast into
jail. See also John 1:28, 34, 6:4, 7:5, 8:20, 27, 9:14, 22, 10:22, 23,
11:13, 30, 12:33, Acts 19:20, 1 John 3:1.
INTENSIFICATION
An Intensification (Epitasis) is a
concluding sentence which emphasizes what has been said, as Acts 7:5:
He does not give him any allotment to enjoy in it, nor even a
platform for a foot. See John 13:34.
CLIMAX
Climax (Anabasis) is an increase in sense
or emphasis by steps, as in I Corinthians 4:8: sated, rich, reign. See
also Luke 11:9: request, seek, knock; 1 John 1:1: was heard, seen,
gazed upon, handled.
EXAGGERATION
Exaggeration (Hyperbole) adds to the sense
more than is intended, as when the Pharisees said: the world
came away after Him (John 12:19). See also Luke 2:l, John 3:26, 1 Cor.
4:15, Jas. 3:6, 4:1.
SUBTRACTION—ANTICLIMAX
Anticlimax (Catabasis) is a decrease in
sense or emphasis by steps. The seven steps in our Saviour’s descent
to the cross is the most striking example (Phil. 2:6-8).
FIGURES OF REPETITION
SOUNDS OR LETTERS
Alliteration (Homoeopropheron) repeats the
same letter or sound at the beginning of words.
End Rhyme (Homoeoteluton) repeats the sound
at the end of words.
Inflection Rhyme (Homoeoptoton, Paramcoeosis)
repeats the same inflection, hence the same sound at the end of words.
These forms are seen only in the original language,
and it is never certain whether the similarity is simply incidental or
intended.
The Acrostic (Acrostichion) is the repetition
of certain letters according to the alphabet, to spell words, or some
definite arrangement. It occurs in the Hebrew text of the Old
Testament, but not in the Greek.
REPETITION—SOUNDS
Rhyme (Paronomasia) is the repetition of
the same sound, in the original languages. As this may often be
incidental, without design, its presence is not always intentional,
and should only be noticed when the emphasis is obvious.
DUPLICATION
In Duplication (Epizeuxis) the same word
or phrase is repeated for emphasis, as the “ Verily, verily” of
John’s account. A list of the most of them follows in alphabetical
order:
Crucify, Luke 23:21; Doctor, Luke
8:24; Eloi, Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; how very (See as
much as), Heb. 10:37; Jerusalem, Matt. 23:37, Luke
13:34; Lord, Mat 7:21, 22, 25:11, Luke 6:46, 13:25; Martha,
Luke 10:41; no, Matt. 5:37, 2 Cor. 1:17; Rabbi, Mark
14:45; Saul, Acts 9:4; Simon, Luke 22:31; verily,
John 1:51, 3:3, 5, 11, 5:19, 24, 25, 6:26, 32, 47, 53, 8:34, 51, 58,
10:1, 7, 12:24, 13:16, 20, 21, 38, 16:20, 23, 21:18; yes,
Matt. 5:37, 2 Cor. 1:17, James 5:12.
PRONOUN
As the conjugated form of the verb, in the
Original, (e.g. kaleõ, I-AM-CALLING) includes the
pronoun, it is generally omitted in the Greek. If it is used, it is
emplatic. In THE CONCORANT LITERAL NEW TESTAMENT such
pronouns are indicated by an accent mark (´). The emphatic pronoun I
is especially frequent in John’s account, as in 17:4: I´
glorify Thee on the earth.
IRREGULAR REPETITION
Repetition usually is emphatic even when
it occurs irregularly, as Galatians 4:9: turn back again . .
. to slave again. See also James 5:7, patient; 5:13, 14,
anyone: 1 John 3:5, 8, manifest.
Repetition of phrases (Cycloides) does not differ
from words as 1 Corinthians 13:9: out of an instalment.
WORD PLAY
Wordplay (Antanaclasis or Ploke) repeats
the same word in a figurative sense, as Matt. 8:22: leave the dead
to entomb their own dead. Also world, John 1:10; believe
(entrust), John 2:23, 24; above (over),
and of the earth, John 3:31; eat, John 4:31,
32; written, John 19:22; Israel, Romans 9:6.
EXTENDED WORD PLAY
Extended Wordplay (Syncoeceiosis) repeats
the expression with a more extended meaning. Thus Paul repeats the
word briefly (Acts 26:28, 29).
DERIVATION
Derivation (Paregmenon) repeats the root
of a word, but not the sense, as Romans 5:19: disobedience, obedience;
Romans 2:l: judging, condemning (DOWN-JUDGing). It can
only be found by tracing the word back to the original language.
USELESS REPETITION
Useless Repetition (Battologia) is the use
of the same expression without adding any sense or emphasis (Matt.
6:7, Acts 19:34).
DETAILED REPETITION
Detailing (Prosapodosis) is the repetition
of an expression in order to add more detail, as: Rom. 11:22,
kindness, severity. See also John 16:8-11, Philipplans 1:15-17.
IDEA
Lingering (Epimone) is the repetition of
an idea in order to impress it: Matt. 7:21-23, 15:18-20, Mark 7:20-23,
John 21:15-17, Col. 2:14-15.
REPETITION OF THE SENSE
A Double Negative repeats and emphasizes
the negation. As this cannot usually be carried over into English, we
have rendered it: under no circumstances, by no means, etc. See these
in the Concordance.
SENSE
Synonym (Synonymia) is the repetition or
overlapping of the sense in a series of expressions, not merely to add
to the sense, but to emphasize it. As words are used with the greatest
precision in the Scriptures, it is seldom that we can restrict
synonyms to this figure, for each word adds to the sense as well as to
the emphasis, as a rule. Thus in Mark 12:30 and Luke 10:27: you shall
be loving the Lord, your God, out of your whole heart ... soul ...
comprehension ... strength. There is overlapping of the sense and
heavy emphasis. Other examples are: counsel, foreknowledge, Acts 2:23;
gibbet, assassinate, Acts 2:23; kindness, forbearance, patience, Rom.
2:4; glory, honor, incorruption, Rom. 2:7; indignation, fury,
affliction, distress, Rom. 2:8-9; glory, honor, peace, Rom. 2:10;
guide, light, discipliner, teacher, Rom. 2:19; stumbling stone, snare
rock, Rom. 9:33 languages, lips, 1Cot. 14:21; accept, taught, Gal.
1:12; sovereignty, authority, power, lordship, Eph. 1:21; psalms,
hymns, spiritual songs, Eph. 5:19, Col. 3:16; learned, accepted, hear,
perceived, Phil. 4:9; thrones, lordships, sovereignties, authorities,
Col. 1:16; grace, mercy, peace, 1 Tim. 1:2, 2 Tim. 1:2.
IDEAS
Interpretation (Hermeneia) repeats what
has been said in other words or in another languaze, as: Emmanuel, God
with us. Matt. 1:23; Messiah, Christ, John 1:41. See Matt. 27:46, Mark
5:41, 15:22, 34, John 1:38, Acts 4 ;36, 9:36, 13:8.
MORE THAN ONE WORD OR PHRASE REGULARLY
Intertwining (Symploke) is the repetition
of two or more expressions with more or less regularity, as 1 Cor.
15:42-44: It is sown in corruption; it is roused in
incorruption. It is sown in dishonor; it is roused
in glory. It is sown in infirmity; it is roused in
power It is sown a soulish body; it is roused a
spiritual body. See also 1 Cor. 12:4-6, 14:15, 2 Cor. 9:6, Rev.
18:21-23.
BEGINNING
Beginning Repetition (Anaphora) repeats
the same word at the commencement of successive phrases, clauses, or
sentences. It is a simple and effective means of impressing an idea on
the mind. Matt. 5:3-11, the so-called beatitudes, is a fine example,
for the word “ happy” is repeated nine times; Matt.
11:18, came: Rom. 8:33-34, who; 1Cor. 3:9, God’s;
1 Cor. 6:11, but; 1 Cor. 11:3, head; 1 Cor. 13:7, all;
1 Cor. 13:8, whether; 2 Cor. 7:11, nay; 2 Cor.
11:26, dangers; Eph. 6:12, with; Phil. 3:2, beware;
Phil. 4:2, entreating; Phil. 4:8, whatever; 1 John
1:1-3, which.
COMMENCING
Commencing Repetition (Epibole) is the
repetition of phrases or sentences (instead of words) at the start of
a statement, as: 1 Cor. 6:12, All is allowed me. See also Acts 20:22,
25.
RESUMPTION
Resumption (Epanalepsis) is the repetition
of the same word after a line of thought has been broken, See 1 Cor.
10:28, 29, Eph. 3:1, 14.
BEGINNING AND MIDDLE
Beginning and Middle Repetition (Mesarchia):
receiving, Matt. 10:40, 41.
BEGINNING AND END
Beginning and End Repetition (Epanadiplosis)
repeats the first word or phrase at the end of a sentence or passage.
In Luke 12:5 “ be afraid” is repeated at the end of the statement
with telling effect. Examples: hear, Mark 7:14-16: watch,
13:35; afraid, Luke 12:5; expectation, Rom. 8:24; Christ,
Gal. 2:20; be rejoicing, Phil. 4:4; what is the benefit,
Jame 2:14-16: hallelujah, Rev. 19:1-3.
MIDDLE
Middle Repetition (Mesodiplosis) repeats
regularly in the center of the sentence, as “ but not” (2 Cor.
4:8-9).
MIDDLE AND END
Middle and End Repetition (Mesoteleuton)
repeats at the end what is in the middle, Mark 5:2, 3, tombs.
REPETITION—END
End Repetition (Epistrophe) repeats the
same word at the end of each clause, or sentence, as, in Revelation
22:11: Let the injurer injure still: and let the filthy one
be filthy still: and let the just one do righteousness still:
and let the holy one be hallowed still. Examples: Rom. 8:31, us;
Rom. 14:8, living, dying: Rev. 7:5-8.
At the end of an argument it may be specially
classified (Epiphoza), as 2 Cor. 11:22, I also.
Refrain (Amoebaeon) is the special name
given this figure, when it is poetical, or embraces a full statement,
as Rev. 18:21, 22, 22, 23, 23, nevermore, or Rev. 2:7, 11, 17, 29,
3:6, 13, 22, Who has an ear, let him hear what the spirit is saying to
the ecclesias. See also Matt. 6:2, 5, 16, and 4, 6, 18; Luke 13:3, 5;
John 6:39, 40, 44, 54.
END AND BEGINNING
End and Beginning Repetition (Anadiplosis)
repeats the last word of a sentence or phrase in commencing the next,
as John 1:14, we gaze at His glory, a glory as of an only begotten . .
. (It is not always clear in a translation.) Matt. 7:22, in your name:
10:40, receiving Me; Lake12:5, be afraid: John14:11, the Father: John
18:37, I; Rom. 8:17, enjoyers of allotment; Rom. 9:30, righteousness;
10:17, tidings; 2 Cor. 9:6, sparingly; Phil. 2:8, death; James 1:3-4,
endurance.
When this figure is repeated, it is especially
impressive, and sometimes named Gradation, as Romans 8:30;
these He calls also; and whom He calls, these He justifies
also: now whom He justifies, these He glorifies
also. See also John 1:1, 1:4, 5, Rom. 5:3-5, 10:14, 15, James 1:3, 4,
14, 15, 2 Pet. 1:5, 7.
MANY ANDS
When each detail of a statement is to be considered
for itself, the different items are separated by the conjunction and (Polysyndeton).
It should be compared with the opposite figure, NO-ANDS,
in which the “ ands” are omitted. When the “ and” occurs only
before the last item of a series, there is no figure. A good example
is found in Luke 10:27: you shall be loving the Lord, your God, out of
your whole heart, and in your whole soul, and with
your whole strength, and with your whole comprehension, and
your associate as yourself. It occurs frequently.
EITHER . . . OR’s
Either . . . or’s (Paradiastole), when
the or (or nor) is unnecessarily repeated, emphasizes each separate
item, as Romans 8:38-39: neither death nor life, nor
messengers, nor sovereignties, nor the present, nor
what is impending, nor powers, nor height, nor
depth, nor any other creation. Only the first neither and the
last nor are needed for the
sense. The repetition stresses each particular. Examples: Matt. 19
:29, Mark l0:29, Luke 14:12, 18:29, John 1:13, 1 Cor. 3:21-22, 2 Thes.
2:2.
INFLECTIONS
Inflection Repetition (Polyptoten) is a
striking feature of the sacred text which is worthy of much study, as
it is strange to our language and cannot be idiomatically translated.
The only practical course is to carry over the figure and then explain
its force. For study we divide the occurrences into various classes.
In every case there must be the same stem repeated, but in a different
form, as: hearing they may be hearing (Mark 4:12), covenanting
a covenant (Luke 22:29), eons of the eons,
etc. The mere fact that the same word follows in another grammatical
form does not make this figure, however. The occurrences must be
mutually related, so as to make a striking combination.
Verb with Participle: bless, Eph. 1:3,
Heb. 6:14; multiply, Heb. 6:14; observe, Matt. 13:13, 14, Mark 4:12,
Luke 8:10, 10:23, Acts 28:26; perceive, Acts 7:34; hear, Mark 4:12.
Verb with Infinitive: contain, Matt.
19:12; hear, Matt. 11:15, 13:9, 43, Mark 4:9, 23, 7:16, Luke 8:8,
14:35.
Noun with Noun: expectation, Rom. 4:18;
heaven, John 3:13; Him, Rom. 11:36; law, Gal. 2:19.
Noun with Genitive: eon of the eon, Heb.
1:8; eon of the eons, Eph. 3:21; eons of the eons, Gal..l:5, Phil.
4:20, 1 Tim. 1:17, Heb. 13:21, 1 Pet.4:ll, 5:11, Rev. 1:6, 18, 4:9,
10, 5:13, 7:12, 10:6, 11:15, 14:11, 15:7, 19:3. 20:10, 22:5; holy of
holies, Heb. 9:3; King of kings. 1 Tim. 6:15. Rev. 17:14, 19:16; Lord
of lords. 1 Tim. 6:15. Rev. 17:14, 19:16.
PROVERB
A Proverb (Parcemia) repeats a well-known
saying. Our Lord used proverbs (John 16:25, 25, 29). Parts of His
parables seem to have been of this character (John 10:6). The proverbs
of the bathed sow and the cur returning to its vomit complete the list
of those actually named in the Scriptures. The others listed may, or
may not, be proverbs: thong of sandals, Mark 1:7, Luke 3:16; prophet
dishonored, Mark 6:4, John 4:44; salt, Mark 9:50; vultures. Luke
17:37; good out of Nazareth, John 1:46; sheep, John 10:6; goads,
Acts26:14; little leaven, 1 Cor. 5:6; stand, fall, 1 Cor. 10:12; all
clean to the clean, Titus 1:15; cur and sow, 2 Pet. 2:22.
REFERENCE
Reference (Gnome), including all, from a
mere Allusion to an exact Quotation, repeats the
words, or sense, of what was previously spoken or written. In The
Concordant Literal New Testament these are carefully discriminated.
Actual quotations are enclosed in quotation marks, carefully excluding
words not in the quoted text. Many passages usually taken as
quotations are intentionally left without marks to show that they are
not exact repetitions, but. mere references.
FIGURES OF GRAMMATICAL
SUBSTITUTION
Grammatical Substitution (Antimereia)
consists in the use of one part of speech for another. Even in English
the participle, though listed as a verb, is frequently used as a noun,
as “ writing.” In Greek this is far more frequent. But the
participle is not a pure verb, but rather a verbal adjective;
the infinitive is a verbal noun. Hence their use as a noun is
not as abnormal as our classification (which places them artificially
with verbs) makes them.
VERB
Infinitive for Noun: sight (to-be-looking)
Luke 7:21; solution (to-up-loose) Phil 1:23; life (to-be-living) Heb.
2:15; entering (to be into-coming) Heb. 4:1.
Participle for Noun: Matt. 11:3, the
coming One. Frequent.
Participle (Passive) for Adjective:
self-censured (having-been-down-known, Gal. 2:11).
ADVERB
Adverb for Noun: The word associate
is an adverb. With be or become the adverb makes a
noun. Examples: John 6:25, Mark 4:10, Acts 5:24, 13:5, Rom. 7:3, 16:7,
Eph. 2:13, 2 Thes. 2:7, 2 Tim. 1:17.
Adverb for Adjective: our outward man
(the out of-us human) 2 Cor. 4:16. See also 2 Cor. 4:17.
ADJECTIVE
Adjective for Adverb: public(ly) Acts
16:37.
Adjective for Noun: Better classified
under Omission, as the noun seems to be understood.
NOUN
Noun for Adverb: In truth, with boldness.
Noun for Adjective: Better classified as Association,
which see.
Noun repeated in the genitive for Adjective:
This is also better classified under Association, When the
first noun is the modified, it is a special figure (Hypallage), as:
superabundance (superabounding) Rom. 5:17; law (legal) Rom. 9:31;
secret, Eph. 1:9: promise (promised) Heb. 9:15.
Two Nouns, one in the genitive, usually seem to
make one an Adjective: Matt. 19:28, throne of glory (glorious
throne).
Noun repeated in the Genitive Plural is
better classified under Inflected Repetition.
Noun in the dative for Adjective: Acts
7:20 (divinely); 2 Cor. 10:4 (to God).
CASE AND ACCIDENCE SUBSTITUTION
Substitution of Case (Antiptosis), or
of Accidence (Meterosis), are sometimes called figures, but it is
questionable whether such exist except in errors of transmission,
loosehess of translation and inexact interpretation. Heterosis of the
gender, however, is quite common. The so-called “ neuter” is used
for persons, but, as this is really an indefinite, this is not out of
the way. But such terms as mankind, saint, etc., though mascu!ine or
feminine in form, take the masculine article. Hence the masculine is
used for both genders by this figure.
LOGICAL CONCORD
Logical Concord (Syllepsis). As the
grammatical concord is sometimes artificial, the logical may supersede
it, as: 2 Cor. 5:19, God was in Christ, conciliating the world
to Himself, not reckoning their (the people of the world’s)
offenses to them.
NOUN
One in Two (Hendiadys) is the use of two
terms joined by and, which merge in such a way that one
becomes an intensified modifier. Thus, the province and shadow of
death. Matt. 4:16, seems to be the (deeply) shadowed province of
death. The following are examples: joy and exultation, Luke 1:14;
spirit and power, Luke 1:17; digs and deepens, Luke 6:48: mouth and
wisdom, Luke 21:15; expectation and resurrection, Acts 23:6; happy
expectation and the glory of the advent, Titus 2:13.
One in Three (Hendiatris) is the same with
more added terms. John 14:6: I am the Way and the Truth and the Life.
As the question concerns the Way, the added terms may emphasize the
fact that He is the true and living way.
VARIANCE
Variance includes a variety of figures in
which something else is meant than is literally said, In derision they
said of our Lord: Others He saves . . . , but they meant nothing of
the sort.
IRONY
Irony (Eironeia) literally means just the
opposite of what is intended. It centers chiefly around the cross of
Christ, when those who crucified Him called Him king (Matt. 27:29, 37,
Mark 15:18, 26, 32, Luke23:38, John 18:39, 19:3, 14, 19, 21), or spoke
of Him saving Himself (Luke 23:37, 39), or others (Matt. 27:42, Mark
15:31, Luke 23.:35). Other occurrences: demolishing the temple, Matt.
27:40, Mark 15:29; His confidence in God, Matt. 27:43: the coming of
Elijah, Mark 15:36; the Corinthians reigned, 1 Cor. 4:8; you (Teacher)
are true, Matt. 22:16; repudiating God’s precept, Mark 7:9; Paul’s
injustice, 2 Cor. 12:13.
DOUBLE MEANING
Double Meaning (Amphibologia) is a statement
which is both literally and figuratively true, as when the chief
priest prophesied that one man should be dying for the sake of the
people (John 11:50).
ILLUSION
Illusion is a figure in which the impression
made on our senses is stated in place of the actual facts, as: the
mariners suspected some country to be nearing them (Acts 27:27).
PROBING
Probing consists in making statements which
seem to imply the contrary to the truth, as when our Lord said: Whence
should we be buying bread . . . ? (John 6:5), when He was aware that
He was about to perform a miracle, yet wished to try Philip. Much of
revelation, including the law, is of this nature. so that human
inferences are apt to be false. This helps to make all revelation up
to Paul’s final unfoldings an Enigma.
WISE-FOLLY
Wise-Folly (Oxymoron) is usua!ly a striking
antithesis, made possible by figurative language, as: the stupidity of
God is wiser than men (1 Cor. 1:25). The following are examples:
light, darkness, Matt. 6:23; (soul) save, destroy, Matt. 16:25, Mark
8:35, Luke 9:24; foremost, slave, Matt. 20:27, Mark 10:44; smaller,
great, Luke 9:48; (soul) procure, destroy, Luke 17:33; behind, in
front, John 1:15. 27, 30; (soul) fond, destroy, hate, guard, John
12:25; worthy, dishonor, Acts 5:41; stupidity, wiser, 1 Cor. 1:25;
weak, disgrace, strong, 1 Cor. 1:27; stupid, disgrace, wise, 1 Cor.
1:27; be stupid to be wise, 1 Cor. 3:18; deceivers, yet true, 2 Cor.
6:8; dying, living, 2 Cor. 6:9; sorrowing, ever rejoicing, 2 Cor.
6:10; poor, enriching, 2 Cor. 6:10; poverty, generosity, 2 Cor. 8:2;
less than the least, Eph. 3:8.
BELITTLING
Belittling (Tapeinosis) is the deliberate use
of a weak term, in order to express the contrary, as: saying that he
is somebody (Acts 5:36), or it often is a negation of the
opposite of that which is intended, as: no insignicant city (Acts
21:39). The following are examples: I presume not, Luke 17:9; be
somewhat, Gal. 2:6; (Bethlehem) in no respect least, Matt. 2:6; it is
not ideal, Matt. 15:26; it is not the will, Matt. 18:14; no slight
commotion, Acts 15:2: not measureably consoled, Acts 20:12; not be
slothful, Acts 9:38: Paul not stubborn, Acts 26:19; no slight tempest,
Acts 27:20; not to be ignorant, Rom. 1:13; not ashamed of evangel,
Rom. 1:16; expectation not mortifying, Rom. 5:5: Paul not applauding,
1 Cor. 11:22; we are not ignorant, 2 Cor. 2:11; God not ashamed, Heb.
11:16; I am no widow, Rev. 18:7.
IDIOM
An Idiom (Idioma) is an expression or
mannerism, peculiar to a language, which does not convey the proper
sense when literally translated. Most of the so-called idioms are
merely figures of speech, or unusual expressions, some of which may be
transferred from one language into another. Some refer to peculiar
customs, hence should be kept, as, “ breaking bread” or “ taking
tea.” “ Breaking bread” is the figure of Near Association,
for to this day bread is actually broken with meals, and stands for
partaking of ordinary food. The phrase, “ three days and three
nights” (Matt. 12:40), for that which extends into three days, no
matter how little; is nearer a true idiom, for it contains no figure
and conveys an idea contrary to its literal meaning. Besides the
grammatical idiom and the words, the following may be mentioned: the
evilly having (the ill), Mark 1:32; take hold of hand (be patron),
Heb. 8:9; voice of mouth, Acts 22:14; open the mouth (speak), Acts
18:14; turn back on the Lord (to the Lord), Acts 11:21; doing time
(spending time), Acts 18:23; faith in one another (one another’s
faith), Rom. 1:12.
INCONGRUITY
Incongruity (Catachresis) is the use of
expressions which, strictly taken, are incorrect, yet they set forth a
distant relation or even contrast, making a striking impression, as
Rev. 1:12: I turn about to look for the voice. They
usually include some other figure also. The following may be taken as
examples: Matt. 12:5, profaning; Matt. 24:29, powers shaken; Luke
16:17, serif fall; Acts 13:34, faithful benignities; 1 Cor. 1:25,
stupidity, weakness: Col. 3:5, deaden members; Heb. 13:15, fruit of
the lips.
FIGURES OF RHETORIC
RHETORICAL
Rhetorical Figures deal with the sense and
the manner in which, not merely information, but feeling is
conveyed. Questions are asked, not to ascertain facts, but to soften
the diction. Exclamations are used to intensify the effect. The mode
of expression suits the circumstances.
ADJURATION
Adjuration (Deesis) is a calling on others
to witness. Paul adjured the Thessalonians, 1 Thess. 2:10.
AFFIRMATION
Affirmation (Affirmatio) is used in
insisting on a fact, as: I am rejoicing . . . and will be rejoicing
nevertheless, Phil. 1:18.
ANTICIPATION
Anticipation (Prolepsis) answers an
argument beforehand, as: persisting in sin that grace should be
increasing, Rom. 6:1, 2. See also Matt. 3:9, Rom. 4:1-3, 7:7, 9:6, 14,
15, 19, 10:18, 11:1, 11, 19, 1 Cor. 15:35.
Also used of mentioning beforehand or predicting,
as when Herod locks John up in jail in the midst of the account of his
baptizing, Luke 3:19, 20. See also Heb. 2:8.
APOSTROPHE
Apostrophe turns from the impersonal to
direct address, either general, as: Whence are battles . . . among
you? James 4:1-6; or individual, as, Who are you? Rom. 9:20, 14:4; you
are, Gal. 4:7; noting yourself, Gal. 6:1; or a class, as: you are . .
. a Jew, Rom. 2:17; you, the nations, Rom. 11:13; O wife, 1 Cor. 7:16.
BLESSING
Blessing (Benedictio) is the ascription of
bliss, as: Blessed is He Who is coming in the name of the Lord, Luke
13:35, Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ,
Eph.1:3.
BOLDNESS
Boldness (Elautheria), or candor, is
speech without restraint, such as should be used in the things of God.
See the word boldness in the Concordance.
CAUSE SHOWN
Cause Shown (Aetiologia) gives the reason
for a statement, as: I am not ashamed of the evangel, for it is
God’s power for salvation, Rom. 1:16. Frequent.
COMMON CAUSE
Common Cause (Anacoenosis) is an appeal to
others with common interests, as: your sons . . . they shall be your
judges, Luke 11:19; . . . judge you, Acts 4:19, 1 Cor. 10:15, 11:13;
What are you wanting? 1 Cor. 4:21; Tell me . . . Gal. 4:21.
CONCESSION
Concession (Synchoresls) grants one point
in order to make another, as: And would that you surely reign, that we
also should be reigning with you, 1 Cor. 4:8. See also Rom. 2:17-23; 2
Cor. 10:1; Gal. 4:15; James 2:19.
CONCILIATION
Conciliation (Protherapeia) is a
preparatory ingratiating statement, as calling our Lord “
Teacher,” Matt. 19:16, Mark10:17, Luke 18:18, John3:2. See also Acts
17:22, 22:3, 26:3.
CORRECTION
Correction (Epanorthosls) is a statement
made to accord with the facts, as: I am believing ! lielp my unbelief,
Mark 9:24. See also Ivlf, t. 11:9, Rom. 14:14, John 12:27, 16:32, Acts
26:27, Rom. 14:4, I Cor. 7:10, 15:10, Gal. 1:6, 2:20, 3:4, 4:9.
DOUBLE CORRECTION
Double Correction (Amphidiorthosis) deals
with both sides, as: Shall I be applauding you in this? I am not
applauding, 1 Cor. 11:22.
COUNTER-BLAME
Counter-Blame (Metastasis) transfers the
blame from one to another, as: the law is spiritual, yet I am fleshly,
Rom. 7:14.
COUNTER-QUESTION
Counter-Question (Anteisagoge) answers one
question by asking another, as our Lord did when they questioned His
authority, Matt. 21:24, Mark 11:29. See also Matt. 15:2, 3, Mark 2:25,
Rom. 9:20.
DETESTATION
Detestation (Apodioxis) is a rejection
with horror, as: Go away, Satan, Mat 4:10. See also Matt. 16:23, Acts
8:20, Phil, 3:8.
DIALOGUE
Dialogue (Antimetathesis) brings in one or
more speakers, as when the nations say: Boughs are broken out that I
may be grafted in, Rom. 11:19, 1 Cor. 15:35.
DIGRESSION
Digression (Parecbasis) is a strong term
of Parenthesia, a stepping aside to examine a different, but
related, subject, as 1 Cor. 15:20-28.
DOUBT
Doubt (Aporia) is the expression of
uncertainty, as: What shall I be doing? Luke 16:3. See Matt. 21:25,
26.
EXCLAMATION
Exclamation (Ecphonesis) consists in words
or sentences evidently uttered with strong feeling, as: O generation,
unbelieving and perverse! Matt. 17:17. As it is followed by an
exclamation point, it is easily distinguished.
EXHORTATION
Exhortation (Paraeneticon) or entreaty
calls for becoming conduct, as: I am entreating you . . . to present
your bodies . . . Rom. 12:1. See the word entreat in the Concordance
for examples..
EXULTATION
Exultation (Paeanismos) calls for
rejoicing, as: Be rejoicing in the Lord always! Again, I will declare,
be rejoicing! Phil. 4:4. See 2 Cor. 13:11, Phil. 2:18, 3:1, James 1:1,
1 Pet. 4:13, Rev. 18:20.
HAPPINESS
Happiness (Beatitudo) is the statement
(rather than wish) that certain will possess it, as: Happy is he who
is not judging himself in that which he is attesting, Rom. 14:22.
Frequent. See the word happy in the Concordance.
IGNORING
Ignoring (Accismus) is an apparent refusal
(Matt. 15:23) or silence (Matt. 27:12, 14).
IMPRECATION
Imprecation (Maledictio) is the
denunciation with a curse, as: Woe to me if I should not be bringing
the evangel! 1 Cor. 9:16. See the word woe in the
Concordance.
INCLUSION
Inclusion associates the speaker or writer
with those addressed, as: they (nations) grope for Him . . . not far
from each one of us, Acts 17:27.
INDICATION
Indication (Asterismos) points out a
passage by means of special words, as: lo, verily, yea
or yes.
INDIGNATION
Indignation (Aganactesis) is an expression
conveying strong condemnation, as: Progeny of vipers! Matt. 3:7,
12:34, 23:33, Luke 3:7; Serpent! Matt. 23:33, Acts 13:10.
INTERROGATION
Interrogation (Erotesis) is a statement in
the form of a question. Often, in the Scriptures, a question is put,
not for information, but to suggest, rather than to state, the
self-evident answer, as: Where is the wise? 1 Cor. 1:20. It must be
remembered that the question marks, in a translation, are not
inspired. There is no indication of a question in the Greek except the
context.
MOCKING
Mocking (Chleuasmos) gives expression to
sneers and jeers, as: Others he saves! Himself he cannot save! If he
is king of Israel, let him descend . . . (Matt. 27:42). See Luke
16:16.
NEGATION
Negation (Negatio) is used in denying the
opposite of the affirmative desire, as: not even for an hour do we
simulate by subjection (Gal. 2:5).
PATHOS
Pathos (Pathopoeia) is the expression of
strong feeling, such as love or hatred, joy or sorrow, as when our
Lord laments (Luke 19:41) and groans (Mark 7:34), or is indignant
(Mark 3:5), or resents (Mark 10:14), or Paul has affliction and
pressure of heart (2 Cor. 2:4) and is travailing {Gal. 4:19), or is
refreshed (2 Tim. 1:16), or others are harrowed and gnash their teeth
(Acts 7:54, 57).
PRAYER
Prayer (Euche) is the expression of a wish
or desire to God, as Paul to Agrippa (Acts 26:29). It is much used by
Paul, as in Ephesians 1:3, 16, 3:14, etc. See the words pray
and prayer in a Concordance.
QUESTIONABLE ASSERTION
Questionable Assertion is a direct
statement intended as a quesvlon, as: You are the King of the Jews?
Matt. 27:11, Mark 15:2, Luke 23:3, John 18:33; You are not hearing . .
. ? Matt. 27:13; You are not answering anything? Mark 15:4; A King are
you? John 18:37.
RAILLERY
Raillery (Diasyrmos) a tearing away of a
disguise, as when our Lord said to Judas: Comrade, for what are you.
present? Matt. 26:50.
